What will you learn in this chapter?
• Why monopolies exist and how they cause barriers to entry.
• Why monopolists are constrained by demand.
• How monopolists set price and quantity.
• What social welfare losses are associated with monopolies.
• What the common public policy responses to monopolies are.
• Why firms have incentives to price discriminate.
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1© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 1
Chapter 14
Monopoly
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 2
What will you learn in this chapter?
• Why monopolies exist and how they cause
barriers to entry.
• Why monopolists are constrained by demand.
• How monopolists set price and quantity.
• What social welfare losses are associated with
monopolies.
• What the common public policy responses to
monopolies are.
• Why firms have incentives to price discriminate.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 3
Why do monopolies exist?
• A monopoly refers to a firm that is the only producer of
a good or service with no close substitutes.
– A firm is a perfect monopoly if it controls the entire market.
– A firm has monopoly power if it can manipulate the price.
• Monopolies exist because of barriers to entry that
prevent other firms from entering the market.
• A natural monopoly refers to a market where a single
firm can produce the entire market quantity demanded
at a lower cost than multiple firms.
Scarce resources Economies of scale
Governmental intervention Aggressive business tactics
2© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 4
Active Learning: Identify the barrier to entry
For each of the following, identify which barrier to
entry permits monopoly power.
1. H2O Company owns all of the water rights to a
town’s drinking water supply.
2. XYZ Pharmaceuticals is awarded a patent for their
new asthma drug.
3. National Brewing Company buys a successful, local
microbrewery.
4. ABC Motor Company produces cars at a lower cost
than smaller firms could.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 5
Monopolists and the demand curve
Monopoly markets differ from perfectly competitive
markets with regard to their demand curves.
2,500
0
Price ($)
D 2,500
5,000
0 3 8
Quantity of diamonds
D
Quantity of diamonds
Perfectly competitive firm’s demand curve Monopolist’s demand curve
Price ($)
Competitive
firms face a
horizontal
demand curve.
Monopolists face
a downward‐
sloping demand
curve.
Firms cannot affect the market price
through their production decisions.
Monopolists can affect the market price,
but are constrained by the market
demand curve.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 6
Monopoly revenue
• When a monopolist produces more of a good, the
market price is driven down.
• Therefore, producing an additional unit of output
has two effects on total revenue:
1. Quantity effect: Total revenue increases.
2. Price effect: Total revenue decreases.
• Total revenue might increase or decrease,
depending on which effect is larger.
• In perfectly competitive markets, a firm can sell as
much as it wants at the market price.
3© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 7
Monopoly revenue
• The following table displays total revenue, average revenue, and marginal revenue.
• Total revenue is maximized when marginal revenue equals $0.
• Average revenue equals price and is greater than or equal to marginal revenue.
(1) (2 ) (3 ) (4 ) (5 )
P rice Quantity so ld T o tal revenue M arginal revenue
A verage
R evenue
( $ / di a mond) ( Viol e t di a monds) ( $ ) ( $ ) ( $ / dia mond)
4 ,0 0 0
5,0 0 0 3 15,0 0 0 5,0 0 0
2 ,0 0 0
4 ,0 0 0 5 2 0 ,0 0 0 4 ,0 0 0
6 ,0 0 0
6 ,0 0 0 1 6 ,0 0 0 6 ,0 0 0
0
3 ,0 0 0 7 2 1,0 0 0 3 ,0 0 0
6 ,50 0 0 0 0
- 2 ,0 0 0
2 ,0 0 0 9 18 ,0 0 0 2 ,0 0 0
5,0 0 0
5,50 0 2 11,0 0 0 5,50 0
- 3 ,0 0 0
1,50 0 10 15,0 0 0 1,50 0
3 ,0 0 0
4 ,50 0 4 18 ,0 0 0 4 ,50 0
- 1,0 0 0
2 ,50 0 8 2 0 ,0 0 0 2 ,50 0
1,0 0 0
3 ,50 0 6 2 1,0 0 0 3 ,50 0
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 8
Monopoly revenue
The MR curve intersects the x‐axis at the
revenue‐maximizing quantity.
0
0
0
0
00
0
25,00
5,00
10,00
15,0
20,00
25,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12
TR, AR, MR ($)
TR
MR
AR
Quantity of violet diamonds
1. A monopolist's
total revenue first
increases. 2. then decreases.
The average revenue equals the
price at any quantity sold.
The total revenue maximizing point is identified where MR = $0.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 9
Active Learning: Determine
revenue‐maximizing quantity
Fill in the following table and identify the
monopolist’s revenue‐maximizing level of
production.
P rice Quant ity so ld T o tal revenue M arginal revenue
A verage
R evenue
( $ / t e x t book ) ( Te x t book s) ( $ ) ( $ ) ( $ / t e x t book )
3 0 6 18 0
12 0 3 3 6 0
9 0 4 3 6 0
1 18 0
150 2 3 0 0
2 10 0 0
6 0 5 3 0 0
18 0
4© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 10
Monopoly profit‐maximizing quantity
• While revenue is important, firms maximize
profits.
• The profit‐maximizing quantity of output for a
monopoly is found where marginal revenue
equals marginal cost.
– This is the same marginal decision‐making analysis
used in perfectly competitive markets.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 11
Monopoly profit maximization
• The profit‐maximizing
quantity is identified
where MR = MC,
point B.
• The price is
determined by the
point on the demand
curve that
corresponds to the
profit‐maximizing
quantity, point A.
• Price is set higher
than the marginal
revenue.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MC, MR, ATC ($)
Quantity of violet diamonds
MC
D
MR
ATC
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
4,500
A monopolist’s profit maximizing price and quantity can
be found graphically.
A
B
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 12
Monopoly profit maximization
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MC, MR, ATC ($)
Quantity of violet diamonds
MC
D
MR
ATC
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
4,500
Monopolist’s
profit
Profit per unit
• Profit per unit =
P – ATC.
• Vertical distance
between A and B.
• Profit = (P – ATC) × Q.
• Since P > MC and
barriers to entry
exist, monopolists
earn positive
economic profits in
the long‐run.
A monopolist’s profits can be found graphically.
A
B
5© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 13
Active Learning: Determine
profit‐maximizing price and quantity and profit
Use the following graph to determine a coffee‐producing
monopolist’s profit‐maximizing price and quantity and profit.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
DMR
P
Q
MC = ATC
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 14
Problems with monopoly
• Monopoly power benefits monopolists but causes
social welfare losses.
• In a competitive market, the equilibrium price
and quantity maximize total surplus.
• Monopolists produce at a lower quantity than the
efficient level.
– Total surplus is not maximized.
– Producer surplus (monopolist profit) increases.
– Consumer surplus decreases.
– The loss of total surplus is a deadweight loss equal to
the total surplus under perfect competition minus the
total surplus under a monopoly.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 15
The welfare costs of monopoly
MC
D
MR
3,500
0 6
2,250
4,500
0 4
D
MC
MC, MR ($) MC, MR ($)
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
MR
Efficient market equilibrium Inefficient monopoly market
Deadweight loss
• Total surplus is maximized and there is
no deadweight loss.
• Consumer surplus decreases because of
the lower quantity and higher price.
• Monopolists earn positive economic
profits.
• Society suffers a deadweight loss.
Quantity of violet diamonds Quantity of violet diamonds
C
A
B
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
6© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 16
The welfare costs of monopoly
• The welfare costs associated with monopolies
is a positive statement.
• Many voters and policy‐makers make
normative statements concerning monopolies:
– Extra profits to monopolies.
– Benefits of maintaining a particular monopoly
outweigh the social welfare costs.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 17
Public policy responses
• Pressure from both the government and
consumers can lead to a decrease in
monopoly power.
• Policy responses are often imperfect and
controversial.
• The goals of policy responses are typically:
– Break up existing monopolies.
– Prevent new monopolies from forming.
– Ease the effect of monopoly power on
consumers.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 18
Public policy responses: Antitrust laws
• One public policy response is to enact antitrust
laws that investigate and prosecute
corporations that engage in anti‐competitive
practices.
– Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.
– Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914.
• Critics of antitrust laws argue that they:
– Are typically politically motivated.
– Cause more inefficiency than they create.
7© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 19
Public policy responses: Public ownership
Benefits
• Provide broader services.
• Set prices lower than
unregulated monopolies.
Costs
• Political pressure.
• Loss of profit incentive
potentially leading to
inefficiencies.
• Natural monopolies occur when one firm can
achieve lower costs of production than
multiple firms.
• A public policy response to natural monopolies
is to allow the government to run them.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 20
Public policy responses: Public ownership
Below provide the effect of price regulation of a
natural monopolist.
Price (cents per kilowatt hour)
MR
MC
ATC
D
Ceiling
20
0
14
05,600 6,350
• Price ceiling set above the
monopolist’s ATC.
• Monopolist produces where price
intersects average revenue (identical
to demand).
Millions of kilowatt hours of electricity
Price (cents per kilowatt hour)
• Price regulated to marginal cost.
• Monopoly is producing at a loss
because P < ATC.
• No deadweight loss at
competitive market price.
MR
MC
ATC
D
Monopoly profit
Deadweight loss
Monopoly loss
Millions of kilowatt hours of electricity
Efficient price:
(P = MC)
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 21
Public policy responses: Regulation
• If policymakers do not want public ownership,
one common intermediate step is to regulate
the behavior of natural monopolies.
– Takes the form of price controls.
• Firms have an incentive to avoid releasing
information about their true production costs.
– This makes it difficult for regulators to determine
the appropriate price.
8© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 22
Public policy responses: Vertical splits
• Another policy response is to vertically split an
industry to introduce competition.
– Different firms now operate at different points in
the production process.
• In a horizontal split, a monopolist is separated
into several firms that compete with each
other to sell the same product.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 23
Public policy responses: No response
• Cost‐benefit analysis might suggest that the
best response is to do nothing.
• This might be preferable if regulation is difficult
and/or ineffective to establish and manage.
• Common when government interventions are
subject to corruption or political mishandling.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 24
Market power and price discrimination
• Some consumers are willing to pay more for a
good than the prevailing market price.
• Price discrimination is the practice of charging
customers different prices for the same good.
– Firms with monopoly power can charge higher
prices to consumers with a higher willingness to
pay.
– The more monopoly power a firm has, the more it
is able to price discriminate.
9© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 25
Market power and price discrimination
Suppose Microsoft has the following potential customers for MS Office.
• 1 million ‘business owner’ customers willing to pay $225.
• 1 million ‘standard user’ customers willing to pay $150.
• 1 million ‘student’ customers willing to pay $75.
Microsoft also has fixed costs of $50 million.
• The demand curve for
Microsoft Office is a step
function.
• At $225 per copy, only business
owners will buy Office.
• At $150 per copy, both
business owners and standard
users will buy Office.
• At $75 per copy, all customers,
including students, will buy
Office.
225
150
75
0 1 2 3
Price ($)
Millions of copies of Office
Demand
Only business
owners buy
Business owners
and standard
users buy
All customers
buy
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 26
Market power and price discrimination
What price should Microsoft charge for Office to
maximize profits without price discrimination?
Price ($) Number of copies Total Revenue ($) Fixed Costs ($) Profits ($)
75 3,000,000 225,000,000 50,000,000 175,000,000
150 2,000,000 300,000,000 50,000,000 250,000,000
225 1,000,000 225,000,000 50,000,000 175,000,000
• A price of $150 maximizes profits.
• Note that by charging $150, Microsoft loses the
business of students.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 27
Price discrimination
What are Microsoft’s profits with price discrimination?
D
0
D
300
150
225
7 5
0 1 2 3 4
D
300
150
300
0 2 4
Price ($)
Millions of copies of Office
Price ($)Price ($)
Millions of copies of OfficeMillions of copies of Office
No price discrimination Perfect price discriminationImperfect price discrimination
Business price = $225
Standard price = $150
Student price = $75
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
Deadweight loss
• One price of $150 to all
customers.
• Loses student customers.
• Results in a deadweight
loss
• Sets price per each group
of customers.
• Earns profits from
all customers.
• Results in smaller
deadweight loss.
• Sets price equal to each
customer’s willingness to
pay.
• Earns profits from all
customers.
• Zero deadweight loss and
consumer surplus.
10
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 28
Price discrimination
• Price discrimination requires firms to
accurately know how much each customer (or
group of customers) are willing to pay.
– Requires some sort of verification.
• The ability to resell products creates problems
for firms trying to price discriminate.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 29
Summary
• Monopoly markets have barriers that prevent
firms other than the monopolist from entering
the market.
• Monopolists are constrained by the market
demand curve.
• Monopolists choose their profit‐maximizing
quantity the same way that firms in competitive
markets do.
– Produce where MR = MC.
• However, monopolists earn positive economic
profits.
© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education 30
Summary
• Monopolists produce less than the competitive
market quantity, causing a deadweight loss.
• Public policy exists to break up, prevent entry,
and mitigate the effect of monopolies.
• Monopolies can use price discrimination
strategies to maximize profits.