• What the definition is and root causes of comparative advantage.
• How to determine whether a country will become a net‐importer/exporter of a good.
• How to calculate change in surplus under trade.
• What the effects of tariffs and quotas are on quantity, price, and welfare.
• What the effects of trade are on factor distribution of income.
• What the challenges are of establishing environmental or labor standards in international markets.
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11© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
Chapter 17
International Trade
2© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• What the definition is and root causes of
comparative advantage.
• How to determine whether a country will become
a net‐importer/exporter of a good.
• How to calculate change in surplus under trade.
• What the effects of tariffs and quotas are on
quantity, price, and welfare.
• What the effects of trade are on factor
distribution of income.
• What the challenges are of establishing
environmental or labor standards in international
markets.
What will you learn in this chapter?
3© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Recall that voluntary exchanges generate surplus, leaving
both participants better off than they were before.
• In exchange, a country is said to have an absolute advantage
if it can produce more of a good or service than other
countries, given similar resources.
• In exchange, a country is said to have a comparative
advantage if it can produce a good or service at a lower
opportunity cost than other countries.
– Each country produces the goods in which it has a comparative
advantage.
• Both countries can have gains from trade when they
specialize in producing the goods and services for which
they have comparative advantages, respectively, and engage
in trade.
Why trade? A review
24© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Suppose that the U.S. and China produce wheat and T‐shirts.
• Their production capabilities are summarized as followed.
Why trade? A review
Country
Wheat
produced
(billions)
T-shirts
produced
(billions)
Wheat
consumed
(billions)
T-shirts
consumed
(billions)
United States 0.3 1 0.3
Without trade China 1 2 1
Total 1.3 3 1.3
United States 3.5 0 1.1 0.8
With trade China 2 2.4 1.2
Total 3.5 3.5 2
1
0
2
3
2
• Without specialization and trade, they are able to produce on their
PPF, but are still inefficiently using their resources.
• With specialization and trade, they coordinate their production and
produce more goods.
5© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Given that the business of trade is conducted almost entirely by
firms and individuals, not by governments, how do firms in one
country know their comparative advantage relative to firms in
another country?
• Firms produce the goods and services in which they have a
comparative advantage by responding to input and output prices
and choosing to produce the good that earns the highest profits.
• The characteristics that affect the costs of production are:
• Countries do not fully specialize because of:
– Trade agreements between countries that may stymie specialization.
– Differences in the natural resources, climate, and relative factor
endowment of different areas.
The roots of comparative advantage
Technology Factor endowment
Natural resources and climate
6© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
An economy that is self‐contained and does not
engage in trade with outsiders is an autarky economy.
From autarky to free trade
Price ($)
Quantity of shirts (millions)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Domestic
supply
Domestic
demand
• Under autarky, an economy does
not export or import any goods
or services.
– Imports are goods and services
that are produced in other
countries and consumed
domestically.
– Exports are goods and services
that are produced domestically
and consumed in other
countries.
• The domestic price and quantity
is determined by the intersection
of the domestic supply and
domestic demand curves.
37© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
From autarky to free trade
• If the world price is less than
autarky domestic price:
– Domestic price decreases to
equal the world price.
– Excess demand occurs.
• Imports make up the
difference between domestic
supply and demand,
eliminating the shortage.
Quantity of shirts (millions)
Imports
Price ($)
0 180 420300
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
Autarky domestic price25
15 World price
When an economy decides to engage in trade, the
domestic price and quantity change.
8© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
Producer surplus
Consumer surplus
Consumer and producer surpluses are affected.
From autarky to free trade
Price ($)
Quantity of shirts (millions)
25
0 300
Domestic
supply
Domestic
demand
Price ($)
Surplus under autarky
A
B C
D
Quantity of shirts (millions)
25
15
0
Domestic
supply
Domestic
demand
Surplus after trade
180 420
World price
Imports
A
B
D
Under autarky:
• Consumer surplus is A.
• Producer surplus is B + D.
After trade:
• Consumer surplus increases to A + B
+ C.
• Producer surplus decreases to D.
• Total surplus increases by C.
9© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Producers export their goods and services
when the world price is greater than the
domestic price.
From autarky to free trade
Price ($)
Quantity of wheat (millions of tons)
0 60
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
40 80
260 World price
200 Autarky domestic price
Exports
• If the world price is greater
than autarky domestic price:
– Domestic price increases to
equal the world price.
– Excess supply occurs.
• Exports make up the
difference between domestic
supply and demand,
eliminating the surplus.
410© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
B C
F
D
E
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
From autarky to free trade
Price ($)
Quantity of wheat (millions of tons)
200
0 60
Domestic supply Domestic
supply
Domestic demand
Domestic
demand
Price ($)
Quantity of wheat (millions of tons)
A
200
0 6040 80
260 World price
Exports
Consumer and producer surpluses are again affected.
Under autarky:
• Consumer surplus is A + B + C.
• Producer surplus is E + F.
After trade:
• Consumer surplus decreases to A.
• Producer surplus increases to B + C
+ D + E + F.
• Total surplus increases by D.
B C
F
E
A
11© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
Given the figure below, determine whether the
country is a net‐exporter or net‐importer.
Active Learning: Becoming a net‐importer
or a net‐exporter
Price ($)
Quantity of planes (thousands)
0 Q*
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
Qd Qs
Pw World price
P* Autarky domestic price
12© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• The previous analysis assumed that the domestic country was a
price‐taker in the world market.
• If a country is relatively ‘big’, then it can influence the world price.
Big economy, small economy
Price ($)
Quantity of shirts (millions)
0
World supply
World supply after U.S.
trades
World
Demand
World demand
after U.S. trades
2,350
17 Price after U.S.
trade
1,625
15
Pre-U.S. world
price
• When the U.S. moves from
autarky to free trade, the world
demand curve shifts to the
right because U.S. consumers
have entered the market.
– World demand shifts right.
– World supply shifts right.
• On net, because world demand
shifted more than world supply,
the world price increases.
513© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
For many goods, the price goes down, and the
country as a whole is better off, but producers lose
out.
Big economy, small economy
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
Price ($)
Before market entry
Quantity of shirts (millions)
0
25
300
15
Price ($)
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
After market entry
Quantity of shirts (millions)
Old world price15
0 200 400
New world price17World price
Under autarky:
• Domestic price is higher than world
price.
After trade:
• Domestic price falls to world price.
• Because of relative size, entry of big
country causes world price to rise
above old world price.
14© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• The previous analysis indicates that imposing
or lifting restrictions on trade can have
different impacts on different groups of
people.
• Laws limiting trade are referred to as trade
protection.
– Protectionism is a preference for policies that limit
trade.
– Trade liberalization is policies and actions that
reduce trade restrictions.
Restrictions on Trade
15© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
Price ($)
Quantity of steel (tons)
Imports
without
tariff
250
0 8 14 25
Domestic supply
World price
Domestic demand
325 World price + $75 tariff
30
Imports with
tariff
• A tariff is a tax targeted at certain imports.
• The purpose is to reduce the quantity of imports to
protect domestic producers.
Tariffs
• A tariff has two effects:
– Increases the world price
for domestic consumers.
– Decreases the amount of
shortage made up by
imports.
616© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
G
C D FE
A
B
Domestic welfare effects of a tariff
2514
Imports
There are substantial welfare effects of imposing a tariff.
Under trade without a tariff on imports:
• Consumer surplus is A + B + C +D +
E+ F.
• Producer surplus is G.
Under trade with a tariff on imports:
• Quantity of imports decreases.
• New world price is higher.
• Consumer surplus is A + B.
• Producer surplus is C + G.
• Government tax revenue is E.
• Deadweight loss is D + F.
G
C D FE
A
B
Deadweight loss
Government revenue
Price ($)
Quantity of steel (millions of tons)
0 308
Old world price250
World price + $75 tariff325
Producer surplus
Consumer surplus
Price ($)
Quantity of steel (millions of tons)
250
400
0 308
Old world
price
Imports
17© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
A
B
Consumer surplus
G
C
Producer surplus
Price ($)
Quantity of jeans (millions)
0
E
Quota rents
• A quota is a limit on the amount of a particular good that can be
imported.
• Quota rents are profits earned by foreign firms or governments
under a quota.
Quotas
Deadweight loss
D F
1,350500
Domestic supply
Domestic demand
25 Old World price
1,140640
Quota = 500 million
A quota has a few effects:
• Decreases imports.
• Increases import price.
• Increases producer surplus
by C.
• Decreases consumer surplus
by C + D + E + F.
• Foreign companies earn
quota rents of E.
• Deadweight loss of D + F
occurs.
32
$7 price increase
New world price
18© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
A tariff of $t per unit is imposed on foreign copper.
• Complete the welfare table.
Active Learning: Restrictions to trade
G
C D FE
A
B
Price ($)
Quantity of copper (millions of tons)
Pw
0 308
Old world price
Pw + t New world price
2514
Imports
Measure Before After Change
CS
PS
Gov’t Rev
DWL
719© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Although countries gain from trade liberalization,
certain segments of the population lose out.
• As a rule of thumb, free trade increases demand
for factors of production that are domestically
abundant, and it decreases the supply of factors
that are domestically scarce.
– Causes factor prices to converge across countries.
– Owners of domestically scarce factors of production
lose due to increased competition, and owners of
domestically abundant factors gain from increased
demand.
International labor and capital
20© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Each country has its own set of laws and policies governing
the economy.
– Safety policies, labor standards, environmental regulations, taxes,
laws about corporate finance, and governance.
– Source of friction in international trade.
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international
organization designed to monitor and enforce trade
agreements while also promoting free trade.
• Import standards and the fair trade movement are ways in
which countries try to deal with variations in cross‐country
standards.
• Similarly, the fair trade movement attempts to inform and
influence consumers’ choices by certifying and labeling
goods whose production meets certain conditions.
The WTO, trade mediation, and import
standards
21© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Countries may use trade as a tool for foreign
policy.
• An embargo is a restriction or prohibition of
trade in order to put political pressure on a
country.
• Examples include:
– The 2009 United Nations Security Council
international weapon trading ban with North Korea
as a response to nuclear testing.
– Broad inter‐war embargo on Iraq included cars and
shirts in an effort to push Iraqi civilians to act.
Embargoes: Trade as foreign policy
822© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Comparative advantage is the ability to produce a
good or service at a lower opportunity cost than
others can.
• Characteristics such as climate, natural resources,
factor endowment, and technology determine
which goods and services a country will have a
comparative advantage at producing.
• When countries moves from autarky (no trade) to
trade:
– If the world price < domestic price, then the country
will be a net‐importer of that good or service.
– If the world price > domestic price, then the country
will be a net‐exporter of that good or service.
Summary
23© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• When markets function well, total surplus
increases if a country opens trade.
– Net‐importer: Consumers gain surplus from buying
larger quantities at lower prices; producers lose
surplus from selling less at lower prices.
– Net‐exporter: Consumers lose surplus from buying
smaller quantities at higher prices; producers gain
surplus from selling more at higher prices.
• A tariff is a tax on imports, and it causes
inefficiency and deadweight loss.
– Raises domestic price of a good, reduces quantity
demanded, increases quantity supplied domestically,
and reduces quantity imported.
Summary
24© 2014 by McGraw‐Hill Education
• Import quotas limit the amount of a particular
good that can be imported.
– Effect of the quota on domestic price and quantity is
similar to the effect of a tariff. It differs on who
captures the rent.
• In general, trade increases demand for factors
domestically abundant, and increases the supply
of factors that are domestically scarce.
• Each country has its own set of laws and policies
governing the economy.
– Policy‐makers and consumers may apply explicit laws
about imports and voluntary purchasing decisions in
order to deal with the inconveniences.
Summary